Resiliency Among Street Children

The Meaning of Resiliency

The Study

    Resiliency is the capacity of individuals to face up to an adverse event, withstand considerable hardship, and not only overcome it but also be made stronger by it. The concept of resiliency has been discussed in past studies as involving both the idea of stressors and an innate capacity of children to respond, endure, and develop normally in spite of the presence of stressors. (Richmond & Beardslee,1988). The concept offers a comforting device because the consequences of childhood adversity can be potentially devastating. There is rich evidence in the research literature linking adverse life events and psychiatric disorders in adults and children. Adverse life events have been associated with child and adolescent depression (Freidrich,etal,1982), substance abuse (Biafora, et al,1994; Duncan,1977), and suicidal behavior (de Wilde,et al,1992). Surla Wolff (1995) underscores the usefulness of the concept of resiliency for research and practice in at least three ways : First, the notion of resiliency and vulnerability, of risk and protective factors highlights the complexity of psychiatric disorders and their causes. It stresses the need to go beyond simple associations between antecedents and consequences, and to look at exceptions rather than the expected outcome. Second, the discovery of why some children caught up in adversity nevertheless do well helps us to identify previously undetected possibilities for preventive action. Lastly, the idea of resilience keeps hope alive in clinical practice; however much the odds against a good outcome, we know that many children escape their expected fate. This is illustrated by one of the earliest longitudinal studies (Werner,1992) on high risk children in the Hawaiian island of Kauai exposed to both biologic and psychosocial risk factors. In her study which began in 1955, Werner identified 201 high risk newborns whose lives she followed from the perinatal period to the age of 32. Of these 201 subjects,72 grew into competent, confident, and caring adults. The results of the study showed that the effects of reproductive stress decreased with time and the developmental outcome of practically every biological risk factor was dependent on the quality of the rearing environment.

    The concept of resiliency initiated a recent paradigm shift in the fields of child development and of prevention. This shift has moved from focusing on decreasing the environmental risk factors that make individuals susceptible to the development of maladaptive behavior and psychiatric disorders to the highlighting of resiliency and its promotion. In this paradigm, it is essential to identify environmental protective factors that can serve as a buffer against the detrimental effects of risk factors, as well as the individual’s vulnerabilities that can pose as a threat to resilient outcome. Resiliency, therefore, is viewed as a product of interaction between individual and environmental factors, something that can be fostered through the developmental years of childhood and adolescence. It can be developed by strengthening the protective elements in a child’s environment while simultaneously promoting the child’s life skills and other personal strengths.

    Many studies have identified critical factors associated with the resiliency of some children. These factors include external supports and resources available to a child (for example, family, school, and community institutions), personal strengths that the child develops (like self-esteem, a capacity for self monitoring, spirituality and altruism), and social skills the child acquires (such as conflict resolution and communication skills). Werner’s 1955 study specifically identified individual and environmental factors that were linked to successful adaptation in high risk situations. Among these were : (1) temperamental characteristics that allowed the subjects to elicit positive reactions from others, thus facilitating positive relationships, (2) skills and values that allowed efficient use of their abilities and talents, (3) care giving skills of the parents that fostered competence and self esteem in the children, (4) adult support, and (5) opportunities for major life transitions.

    The study of O’Sullivan (1991) showed that the presence of an adult who takes interest in a child can have a clear positive effect on the child’s later life as an adult, even in the presence of a dysfunctional parent. It is obvious that resilience does not develop in a vacuum but grows within the context of the family and the community. As children become older, they assume increasing responsibility for their resilience. The challenge is how to help children be more capable in promoting resiliency in themselves and how to help adults contribute to this resiliency more effectively. Findings related to different cultures and different age groups indicate that all cultures draw from the same pool of resilience factors but in different combinations and dynamics. The age of the child has been found to play a critical role. There is a notable shift from dependence on external supports and services on the part of younger children to a greater reliance on social and interpersonal skills on the part of older children, looking up to adults as models (Grothberg,1995). The data suggests that inner, personal strengths continue to build over the years.

    As Wolff points out, resilience is an enduring aspect of a person. Genetic and constitutionally based qualities both determine and are in turn modified by life experiences. Good intelligence, easy adaptability, social temperament, and an appealing appearance attract positive responses in others, which in turn contribute to an inner sense of self- worth, competence, and sense of self-efficacy that have been consistently related to resiliency. The importance of the macro environment in fostering resiliency cannot be overstressed. The adversities associated with poverty and unemployment are great and quite susceptible to intergenerational transmission. These adversities contribute to domestic violence, maternal depression, parental discord, coercive and non-vigilant parenting , and child abuse. On the other hand, some studies suggest that these same adversities may serve to strengthen the resiliency of children. Turner, Norman, and Zunz (1993) synthesized various studies on resiliency factors that serve to promote positive psychological growth and development. Turner,et al classified these factors into individual and environmental factors that decrease individual vulnerability and increase individual resilience. They included individual factors such as an easy temperament, intellectual capacity, self efficacy, a realistic appraisal of one’s environment, social problem-solving skills, a sense of direction or mission, a capacity for empathy, a sense of humour, a capacity for adaptive distancing, and gender. For environmental factors, they included family, school, and community protective elements such as early parental care, enduring warm and positive relationships with at least one adult, a positive family environment and bonding, high parental expectations, family responsibilities, positive modeling, good parenting skills and supervision, family traditions and rituals, support for the youth’s competencies and life goals, extended family support, opportunities for student involvement in various school activities, a caring, supportive school climate, and positive community norms. Many of the studies on resiliency had been done with children and youth living with families under various circumstances of adversity. There are very limited studies done on the resiliency of special populations like the street children. In a critical review of resiliency literature and its relevance to homeless children, Neiman (1988) identified certain factors associated with resiliency among street children. She grouped these factors into individual (constitutional factors, gender, and temperament) and environmental factors (bonding, mother-child relationship, family relationships, and extra familial factors).

The Study

    Supported by the UNICEF Philippines and the National Project on Street Children of the Philippine government, a descriptive study on the resiliency of street children and youth in Manila was conducted in 1997. The study was, in part, motivated by the concern over the highly prevalent use of harmful substances among street children. The objective of the study was to identify individual, family, and environmental factors that made for the resiliency of the subjects in the study, with the hope that, once identified, these factors can be enhanced and made useful in the battle against substance abuse. A modified social stress model, derived from the original work of Rhodes and Jason (1990) and modified for use in the WHO Programme on Street Children and Substance Abuse, was used as the framework for identifying the children’s resiliency traits as well as the risk and protective factors. The chances of using drugs are directly proportional to risk factors (which include stress, mechanisms by which use of harmful substance is "normalized", and the desired experience with the substance) and inversely related to protective factors (positive attachments, coping skills, and available resources).

    Twenty-five (25) street children (17 males and 8 females) were interviewed for the study. The age range of the subjects was 12 to 20 for the males and 14.5 to 19 for the females. These children were selected from various non-governmental organizations or agencies linked with the UNICEF Program on Psychosocial Intervention. The children included in the study came from a pool of 50 names submitted by the different organizations who, at the time of the study, had demonstrated at least 2 years of steady, even though at times shaky, positive psychological growth and development.

    Three child and adolescent psychiatrists were involved in the study. Based on the modified social stress model the investigators developed a questionnaire for use in the evaluation of the subjects. The questionnaire was designed to assess individual, familial, and environmental factors that make for resiliency. A series of in-depth interviews was done with each subject; a detailed mental status examination was done on each subject. Personal and family histories were gathered from direct interviews of the subjects as well as from existing records. Whenever possible, interviews were also made with peers, staff members, and family members with the consent of the subjects involved. Home visits were also done by a social worker when applicable. In some cases the subject was the only source of information, limiting the data gathered to the subject’s memory and view of his world.

Individual Resiliency Traits

    As previous studies show, a cluster of personality traits enable highly stressed children to overcome their stresses and develop a sense of competence and control in their lives. These traits enhance their resilience.

    In the study, a sense of direction or mission and self-efficacy are the most common individual traits identified by the street children. The positive effects of a sense of direction or mission can be attributed to the relative stability that a goal offers as  opposed to the drifting nature of a directionless life. Many of the children affirmed that a sense of direction gave them a purpose or a life task that guided the decisions they made. One of the subjects, Ronnel, was guided by his self-chosen mission to save his younger siblings as well as other children from experiencing the life he had on the streets. His dream of becoming a policeman someday can be seen as an extension of a sense of mission to save other children who go astray.

    At 17, Ronnel is one of the older boys at KAIBIGAN (FRIEND), a non-governmental community based center for street children. As such, he felt responsible for the younger boys and tried to act like a role model by actively participating in the center's activities such as sports like swimming and basketball, as well as handicraft making. During his extra time he worked as a "car wash boy" outside the center. Aside from this, having known the damaging effects of abusing substances, he felt he had a responsibility to save other street children from drug abuse. When he met children in the streets using drugs, instead of joining or ignoring them as he might once have done, Ronnel would take time to talk to them to warn them of the dangers of substance abuse. Specifically, Ronnel wanted to make sure that his younger siblings would not have to go through what he had undergone. In his words, "I didn’t take good care of myself back then, so now I intend to guide and care for my younger siblings."

    The importance of a sense of direction can be seen in the case of Joel, an 18 year old high school senior. His desire to go to school goaded him to continue studying despite the many upheavals and changes in his life. 

    Joel remembered that his family was too poor to send the children to school regularly. After his father left them, his family moved in with some friends in another section of the city. Subsequently, he and his mother moved to the reclamation area by the Manila Bay. Despite these changes, he never gave up on his school. He completed grade 6 while living in the reclamation area and subsequently went to high school with the help of a street children organization. According to Joel, all he wanted was to finish his schooling because he believed he could get a better job than what he did in the streets and a better chance to help his family.

      Closely related to the sense of direction or mission is the sense of self-efficacy. Self efficacy has been defined as "a positive perception of one’s competence to perform certain tasks" (Bandura, 1977). It includes the faith an individual has in his ability to control his or her life and environment in positive ways. Seen in this light, needed to attain one’s goals. Almost all the children interviewed constantly demonstrated their sense of self-efficacy through repeated and effective daily behavior aimed at gaining a livelihood in the streets. Rafael, for example, believed in his abilities to change his future. He approached the staff of KAIBIGAN seeking help to enroll in a vocational course, and eventually learned refrigerator and air conditioner repair. This sense of self-efficacy could be seen even earlier in his life.

    When Rafael was 10 years old, he decided to leave his grandmother with whom he was living and to whom he did not feel close. On his own, he decided to seek out his married older sister whom he knew lived somewhere in another district of the city. Being very young and unschooled, he was unable to trace her immediately. He wandered the city begging for food and money. He also learned to scavenge through the garbage and trash for plastic bottles, cartons, and other objects that he sold at a market. He slept under the Light Railway Transit (LRT) tracks and eventually settled with other boys in a warehouse near a market place. While on the streets, he made periodic use of the "drop-in" center at KANLUNGAN (SHELTER). He slowly learned to involve himself with activities of KANLUNGAN and took advantage of the opportunities offered to him. H agreed to take short-term lessons in painting. He had made use of this skill to generate income for the center by creating designs for their greeting cards. At the center, Rafael started to think about the future, He thought of taking a course in refrigerator and air conditioner repair and approached the staff of KANLUNGAN to help sponsor his education.

    Antonio, at 7, sold plastic bags in the market and at 15, drove a motorized tricycle to earn for his family and for his education. He learned from a friend who drove a pedicab how much he earned as a pedicab driver. Antonio requested his friend to talk to the owner of the pedicab on his behalf so he too could drive the pedicab. In this manner, he managed s to make more than double what he used to earn selling plastic bags.

    To be truly effective, belief and action must go hand in hand. For example, adolescents who believe they can resist drugs are more likely to do so. All the children in the study believed they had the capacity to resist the use of harmful substances, and they did.

    Many of the street children who shared their life stories demonstrated social problem solving skills and street survival skills as important factors in their survival. There is good reason to separate the notion of social problem solving skills from that of street survival skills, although admittedly they overlap. Both sets of skills are important in that they allow the street children to live in the streets and survive. Maximiano, 14 years old, illustrated good social problem solving skills. When he left home, his immediate concern was where to eat and sleep in the streets. He quickly asked around at nearby stores, offering to work for food and shelter. He was eventually hired by a canteen owner to help out in the kitchen, and he learned how to cook in the process.

    Many street children in general learn a number of survival skills. They learn how to beg, steal, lie, cheat, evade arrest, fight, use inhalants or marijuana to forget their hunger or feel momentarily empowered in their fantasies, and even prostitute themselves in order to survive in the streets. Although these types of behavior are anti-social by the usual social norms, they have survival value for street children who resort to them at different times in their lives. The resilient street children obviously are able to use personality traits that help them abandon this type of survival behavior and direct their lives towards more constructive directions. Good examples of street children who resorted to survival behavior and later abandoned them for more adaptive behavior are Jerry, Ronnel, Maximiano, Val, and Rommel, teen age boys from different parts of the city. The case of Jerry is an example of what life in the streets is like and what skills street child would have to do in order to survive.

    Jerry and the other boys quickly found out that much to their dislike, they had to resort to begging, occasionally stealing and handbag snatching in order to survive. They felt they had no choice because they were hungry and had no money. They slept in different places such as sidewalks and under the Light Rail Transit (LRT) station. All of them learned to do drugs, two of them even engaged in prostitution for some time. But each of them made a turn around when they faced up to their mistakes and corrected them.

    Problem solving skills reinforce one’s sense of competence and self-esteem. Street survival skills, on the other hand, often involve self-damaging behavior that heightens the risk of failure in a street child who is not resilient. Whereas the example of Jerry and the other boys focused more on survival skills, the example of Marlon M. can be used as an example of social problem solving skills. 

    When Marlon went to Cubao, he continued to earns by begging and watching cars. From his earnings, he bought food and clothing. He slept almost always alongside a particular bank. When he needed to go to a restroom, he would go to restaurants. His friends also brought him to homes where street children would be allowed to use the toilet and bathroom for a fee.

   Adaptive distancing, seen in most of the children, is an important trait that helped the street children in the study effect a healthy separation from the immediate problems in their lives. The children with this trait managed to separate themselves physically and/or psychologically from the risk factors in their environment. Many street children interviewed, for example, did not identify with dysfunctional parents and found healthy role models elsewhere. They did not feel responsible for their parents’ problems. Some even felt compassion but detached towards their parents. Such is the case of Susan who, although disappointed with her mother continued to love her and exerted efforts to save her from an abusive boyfriend. She preferred to live in a residential center that helped her go to school. In her words:

    "My problem has to do with my mother and her live-in partner. I cannot do anything to separate them. That is why I believe this problem will never be solved. I love my mother, and I will only try to help her whenever I can."

    Jerry would leave the house when his foster parents fought. Although he wished to stop the fight, he knew there was nothing he could do. Mr. D (Jerry’s foster father) was alcoholic. When drunk, he would become violent, provoke fights, would shout a lot, and sometimes would physically abuse his wife. Mrs. D., on the other hand, was a quiet, passive, hardworking woman. Whenever the couple fought, Jerry would just leave the house. He wanted to stop the fights but was afraid to do so. Adaptive distancing often requires a capacity for realistic appraisal of situations as well as self-monitoring skills.

    Having a hobby or a creative talent such as sport, singing, dancing, writing, and painting serves as a coping mechanism through which children can distance themselves from problems and at the same time foster in them feelings of competence, self-worth, identity, and a feeling of worth in the community. In some instances, in fact, the creative talents have served a purpose of "therapy" or self-healing because these activities allowed expression of conflicted feelings. A good example is the case of Rommel who had sublimated his conflicts into theatre arts. Through his work in street theatre he also realized that he could be useful to the community.

    Supported by Maryville Foundation, a community -based center, Rommel joined workshops in theatre arts. Later on, he took a 10-day live-in course in script writing, again supported by Maryville . His involvement in theatre arts meant a deeper involvement with his own self. He discovered his great love for the performing arts, especially drama, acting, directing, and script writing. He also realized that he could make himself useful to the community by directing plays, acting, and writing drama with lessons for the audience to learn.

    Marlon P., who represented his school in karate tournaments and at the same time taught it in his school, demonstrated the importance of a special talent.

    In order to act effectively for themselves or for others, the street children need a realistic view of their environment. Most of the children showed a good capacity for appraising their situation realistically. These children seemed to know what was possible and attainable in their situations, allowing them to act on opportunities that could help their long term goals. They also knew what they could and could not change in their life situations. Many of the children have learned to accept their dysfunctional parents for what they were. Others have accepted the limitations that their environments placed on their dreams.

   Joel B. dreamed of becoming a computer scientist some day, or a pilot "so I can visit other countries". But he was aware these dreams were not readily within his reach. So he planned "to be an electrician after high school, then work, save money, and take up computer engineering."

    Self-monitoring skills and self-control are regarded by more than half the children as important factors in their lives. Self-monitoring, the ability to regularly assess one’s self and situation, makes for resiliency through the constant awareness of where one stands in his or her life. By monitoring the events in his life and the effects of these on the self, the street child is able to appraise his or her environment realistically. He or she is able to make good choices, and able to avoid options that can bring harm to him or her, like substance abuse. Self-control refers to the ability of individuals to control impulses and disengage from temptations and pressures. It involves an internal focus of control, thereby reinforcing their sense of self-efficacy. Obviously, the youngsters in this study who have been able to say "no" to drugs, street brawls, and early risky sexual experimentation and exploitation have illustrated adequate self-control; an illustrative case is Michael:

    At 12 years old Michael was introduced to the use of marijuana and other substances like cough syrup and "shabu" (amphetamine) by the people he worked with in a market place. When told by a concerned adult of the harmful effects of the substances, Michael decided to stop using them. He left his work in order to get away from the temptation and company of the addicts. He figured that he could get another job by asking his friends in the streets.

    Intellectual capacity was roughly gauged through the academic achievement and the responses shown by the street children during the interviews. Very few of them have had psychological tests. More than half of the children interviewed showed a notable degree of intelligence reflected particularly in their achievements in school. The street children who showed comparatively higher intelligence also placed a high premium on the importance of schooling. They saw formal education as a means of improving their situation in life. Nina, for example, viewed the completion of her education as the most important goal in her life. Another street child, Eric had just graduated from high school and was employed as a decor painter in a furniture factory. Aside from the relative advantage that intelligence gives a person in order to survive, the belief in the value of education as a possible means of improving one’s condition had given the street children a firm anchor that kept them from engaging in self-destructive behavior. Joel is a good example of one who valued education.

    Joel never gave up on school. He wanted to complete his high school education because he planned to work and help his family. He admired a cousin who received academic honours in his school, and hoped to be like his cousin. He knew his classmates and friends had high expectations of him, and wanted to remain a good role model for other children.

    There were 6 subjects who, prior to their inclusion in the study, had formal psychological assessments. It is interesting to note that these subjects had I.Q. measurements that were much lower than what one would expect, given their adaptive capacities. This raises the question whether the standard instruments used to measure intelligence are appropriate for special populations like the street children.

    Ten of the subjects appeared to possess easy temperament and disposition, allowing them to maintain positive relationships especially with people in a position to help them. They gravitated easily towards good connections. As cited in earlier studies, an easy temperament aids in fostering good interpersonal relationships thus allowing other people to treat them in more positive manners. These relationships reinforce the children’s sense of self-worth and at the same time open more opportunities for self-development. In Val’s case, it was easier for him to empathize with friends who were in trouble. He tried to entertain them, to talk to them, or play with them. He considered himself to be humorous, being good at making people laugh and be happy.

    Nine of the subjects showed the capacity to recognize mistakes they had made in the past and instead of succumbing to these or simply accepting them, they used the knowledge brought on by experience to create better, more positive lives. The subjects who had exhibited this trait were generally more altruistic and empathetic. They used their experiences to help younger children so that they could avoid making the same mistakes they themselves had made in the past. Ronnel, for example, having known the damaging effects of substance abuse now felt a responsibility to keep other children from committing the same mistakes he had made.

   Rommel, whose talent in the theatre arts had been cited earlier, had been involved with drugs, alcohol, and gambling. He worked in a gambling house as an errand boy. It was an easier job than collecting garbage. He also earned much more. He had more than enough pocket money, school needs, clothes, shoes, and food for his family. He began to neglect his school responsibilities. With the help of a social worker, he got connected with an agency that helped street children and their families. He decided to stop working at the gambling den, and proceeded to graduate from high school. This became the turning point in his life.

    Another boy. Eric, gave up life in the streets and drugs, concentrated on his studies, and had been steadily employed. He still occasionally would go to his old neighbourhood trying to help pull his friends away from the streets.

    Many studies identify a sense of humour as an important element of resiliency. This factor came out clearly in eight of the twenty-five cases. Humour allows an individual to cope with situations that can threaten to overwhelm him or her. The ability to laugh at oneself and see the lighter side of situations can often help in dealing with the stressful events in one’s life. Humour reduces tension and restores perspective. Rafael and Val, for example, attributed their ability to get along well with others to their sense of humour.

    Leadership skills, altruism, and empathy are attributes that are "others-oriented", allowing individuals to actively help other people. Seventeen of the subjects showed leadership skills and altruism. These attributes gave them a sense of purpose, worth, and self-empowerment, and allowed them to go beyond themselves in trying to achieve goals that would benefit others, Empathy, shown by 15 of the subjects, allowed the subjects to feel for others. Through their actions, the subjects in the study were recognized in their various communities. In some cases they acted as "kuyas" (older brothers) " and "ates" (Older sisters) for those younger than they. They became role models for the younger ones, using their knowledge and experience to help just as they themselves were helped in the past by others. Marissa, 10 years old, was recognized and awarded by the Philippine National Red Cross as the most outstanding junior health worker in 1994. She had shown leadership skills by organizing seminars on health care for street children in KANLUNGAN (SHELTER), a community-based centre for street children.

    In her first year with KANLUNGAN, Marissa finished a three-week dressmaking course and became involved in helping the staff work with the children on the streets. Her work involved talking to street children and educating them about the dangers of harmful substances. In 1994, at the age of 15, she was selected by the KANLUNGAN staff to represent the centre at a training seminar for junior health workers sponsored by the Manila chapter of the Philippine National Red Cross. After her training, she organized seminars for street children at KANLUNGAN on health promotion. She assisted the staff in first aid, and helped bring the children to the hospital for emergency and out-patient treatment. A staff worker commented, "After the training, Marissa immersed herself in health work, showing efficiency and effectiveness in performing her duties. She knew more about hospital procedures than I did." That year, in 1994, she was voted as the "Bantog na Junior Health Worker" (Outstanding Junior Health Worker). A recognition given by the National Red Cross, Manila Chapter. She was cited for her organizational skills and leadership qualities.

    Teresa demonstrated her leadership skills and altruism as a student leader. In grade school, she was always voted as class president. She had a soft heart for other children like her, poor but deeply committed to studying. Her capacity for empathy had led her to make some mistakes in the past. In grade school, she remembered feeling so sorry for a friend who had lost a book. She then took a book from the library to replace the one her friend had lost. She was caught and was heavily reprimanded. She never forgot the mistake she made.

    Ronnel, cited earlier, also showed a great degree of altruism in his desire to keep other children from a life of drug use and prostitution, keeping them from making the same mistakes that he had made. Altruism is also understood as the desire and willingness to alleviate the condition of others, such as their families and other street children like them.

    The last resiliency factor identified among the street children is "pakikisama". This is a very common Filipino trait that can be loosely defined as "going along with a group to avoid confrontations". It may also be seen as an individual’s attempt to seek attachment or to belong to a group. This trait can have either positive or negative affects depending on the kind of group that the individual attaches himself to. Therefore, it is important for the street children to connect to a good group that can offer them access to positive involvement. Michael, after he left his work in the market to avoid the "addicts", was able to connect himself to the "Scout Ranger Brotherhood", a fraternity that he described as a group of upright, stable, and supportive young men who avoided violence. Here he felt a sense of brotherhood and belonging that strengthened his own sense of self-worth.

    Joel B. showed this trait when he entered a centre for street children and quickly became a part of it. When admitted to MASIGLA, a residential centre for street children, Joel had scabies all over his body. He was very thin and evidently malnourished. He adjusted easily to life in the centre. He related quickly and easily to the staff and other residents. He soon endeared himself to the staff and other children.

    Like intellectual capacity, a sense of morality also offers a guide to the street children in making their decisions. Eleven of the 25 subjects took special note of how a sense of morality guided their actions and choices in daily life. They attributed to their sense of right and wrong their capacity to avoid the use of illegal drugs and the use of sex for money. A sense of morality reinforces self-control, and contributes to feelings of efficacy.

    Rafael, cited earlier, demonstrated an innate sense of morality. He felt disgusted with his mother’s second marriage because he could not stand seeing her mother share her husband with other women. He claimed he left his family because he could not stand his mother’s second husband.

    Marissa claimed her friends in the streets engaged in sex for money. She refused to engage in such activity because she thought of it as morally wrong. She would rather beg. The girls met a recruiter from Angeles City, a place famous for night entertainments, who promised to find them homes in that city where they could work as domestic helpers. Instead , they were brought to a "club" to perform as commercial sex workers. Marissa claimed that she refused to become a prostitute. She instead worked in the club for a week as a dishwasher and then escaped, leaving her friends behind.

    Religion or faith in God was regarded to be very important by 10 of the subjects. They cited prayers and going to church as support that helped them through difficulties. All ten had expressed the belief that the power of faith had helped them stay away from trouble. Some of these children admitted that they did not go to church regularly. Nevertheless their behavior showed that they had a personal relationship with God. Marlon had a good relationship with God and would go to church frequently when feeling troubled; he also prayed before each meal. Marissa claimed that she generally turned to God first whenever she encountered problems or felt downhearted.

    Ronnel, though young in age, had developed a philosophical attitude about life. He believed that given the right time, things would fall into their proper places. He felt a personal relationship with God. Though he did not attend church regularly, he believed that God had special plans for him on earth.

    The individual resiliency traits identified in this study, and demonstrated in the vignettes, are not mutually exclusive of each other. Many of the traits, in fact, are closely related to each other and were clustered accordingly. The subjects in the study registered an average of 11 individual resiliency traits. Some showed a minimum of 7 traits while others showed considerably more. These traits appear to have interplayed with one another in each child in a manner that was empowering.

    Individual traits, while very important, are not always sufficient for the development of resiliency. Resiliency involves interaction between individual and environmental factors, not fixed attributes of traits within an individual. This observation is especially true among children and adolescents. Young people need elements in their environment that will not only reinforce but also protect the individual traits which help them become resilient. In the study, a search for family, community, and peer protective factors was made in order to show the dynamic interaction of individual resiliency traits with protective factors in the individual’s environment resulting in positive adaptive outcomes among the street children.

    The family is the single institution that can respond to the basic needs of children on a long term basis. It exerts the most powerful influence over the child’s emotional, social, psychological, and physical development. Whether it is a two-parent, single parent, adoptive or foster family, it normally provides significant protective factors that help build resiliency in the individual. In some instances, as in a dysfunctional family, it may be a source of significant risk.

    In the study, the most commonly cited protective factor was that of having family responsibilities. Twenty-three of the twenty-five subjects mentioned this factor as being important. This factor included not only household chores and taking care of younger siblings, but also earning extra income for the impoverished family. In many instances, this sense of responsibility implied firm and clear parental discipline and supervision. Bleuler (1978) has a partial explanation for the effect of this factor on the individual. Bleuler found that "youth whose families need them to do tasks will feel that they have something to contribute and will feel valued and empowered." This empowerment can be seen in the life of Teresa.

    Susan, for example, related how much she appreciated her mother’s efforts to somehow uphold family rituals despite their poverty. She realized the importance of this in her life even though her mother no longer made the effort to continue with such activities. Susan felt all these changed when her mother met her current boyfriend.

    Some of the street children related how having a warm bond with a sibling was important to them,. It is not uncommon for the siblings of street children to be street children themselves and the shared experiences of living in the streets often cause siblings to turn to one another. Such bonding obviously provides a protective element for each of the siblings.

    Among his siblings, Antonio is closest to the eldest, Mary Anne, now 22 years old. Mary Anne finished a secretarial course and worked as an office secretary. The siblings would have light chats about shows they would see on a neighbour’s television and Mary Anne would take him along on her trips to the market. Antonio also looked up to his brother Anmar and followed his brother’s example in terms of working and studying.

    Among the street children interviewed, only 8 mentioned having positive family environments and bandings. This somewhat low finding was not surprising when one considers that the very reason many street children are out in the streets is their desire to escape their dysfunctional families. Many of the street children interviewed experienced positive family environments with substitute families that had adopted them. Jerry, for example, found a home in Mr.D’s family who accepted him as one of their own. Marlon P. continues to live with his foster family. Moreover, most of the eight subjects who mentioned having positive family environments no longer had such families at the time of the interview. The subjects were actually looking back at their lives when their families were still intact and deriving strength from these memories.

    The family of Norma, while unusual in its extremely positive nature, showed the importance of a positive family environment. Her parents raised their children sharing the household chores that included dish washing, laundry, and cleaning. Despite their poverty, they always emphasized the importance of education. No matter how little they had in life, Norma’s parents always made sure that all their children went to school. Norma described her family as being close-knit. They always celebrated special days like Christmas and other holidays at home. During birthdays her mother would fix something special for the family. When the children were much younger, the family always attended Mass together.

    Another highly expressed protective factor was that of a warm, positive relationship with a parent. Considering the frequent observation that most street children fail to establish close and effective bonds with their parents, the scope of this definition was made to include various adults in the street child’s life such as foster parents, aunts, uncles, grandparents, family friends, and other adults who showed interest and care for the street children.

    Rommel, known for his stage work, identified closely with his father. According to Rommel, his father had a distinctly personal style of dealing with his children. He openly shared his personal experiences with them. Rommel described him as a family man, working hard all day and going straight home in time for dinner. He had no vices. Rommel strongly identified with him in his disposition, especially in his father’s love for the arts. His father wrote plays and poems and influenced Rommel towards this inclination.

    A warm, positive relationship with an adult fosters feelings of importance in street children, making them feel that someone does care for them. An older person to whom they can run for support or advice serves as a positive adult model.

    Positive adult models acted as a guide in life for many of the street children. Early parental modelling was expressed by 15 of the 25 respondents as a guiding factor even if the parent was no longer involved with them in some instances. This can be seen in the case of Jerry. Although his father had died when he was five years old, Jerry wished to complete his education because he believed his father had wanted that of him. According to Jerry, he had taken after his father both in personality traits and physical attributes. He wished to become a soldier, as his father had been. Many of the subjects mentioned foster parents as their role models showing that the effect of modelling need not be limited to a parent alone but could include any adult the street child looked up to and imitated. In fact, such parent-substitutes were common in the lives of the street children studied. Jennifer, for example developed a strong bond with her caregiver (Ate Glo) in the centre where she stayed. Jennifer described Ate Glo as being patient and caring and a source of inspiration for her.

    Teresa felt a strong bond with her maternal aunt who was a source of support and acceptance. Teresa traced back most of her physical attributes to her mother’s family. She claimed she looked much like her favourite childless maternal aunt who lived with them. Although her mother mostly took care of her, she felt a strong attachment and affection for her aunt. While her family had always been intact, Teresa did not feel a real closeness among the members. Her aunt was always available to her when she felt sad or troubled. She hardly ran to her parents for help. But her aunt, she trusted most. In fact, whatever share of her earnings she could save, she entrusted to her aunt.

    Twelve of the subjects felt great affection from members of their extended families. In some cases, an aunt or an uncle had cared for the children in lieu of a mother or father. In other instances, a grandparent had taken over parenting even for only a brief period in the child’s life, an experience that the child could remember for years to come. A member of the extended family towards whom a street child feel a particular affinity and affection because the role model for the child in place of a parent, especially if an affectionate bon had not been adequately established with the parents. In such cases, the extended support system provided the protective system provided the protective factor at some critical points in the child’s life. In a number of cases the affectionate bond was established with a sibling rather than with the parents.

    Although many of the street children interviewed did not maintain frequent contact or involvement with their families, nine respondents said that their families were morally supportive of them in their struggle to attain their goals while some mentioned that their parents had high expectations of them. Supportiveness of the child’s ability and high parental expectations enhance a child’s resiliency. The child enhances his belief in his abilities when he knows his parents have faith in him and have high expectations of him. Parents who expect a child not to take drugs and make that expectation known have tremendous influence in the child’s decision not to abuse substances. Similarly, parents who have high but realistic expectations of their children’s performance in school can inspire their children to strive well. For example, Antonio’s father stressed the need for him to finish a college degree in order to liberate himself from their poverty. This has sustained Antonio’s efforts in his studies. Support and belief in the children appear to be positive protective factors only as long as these are realistic. Parents who have high expectations beyond the children’s abilities may instill feelings of inadequacy and failure in their children.

Environmental Protective Factors

    The protective elements identified in the peer group, schools, and community at large, like the individual and family resiliency factors are not exclusive of one another. There is a constant interplay among the different categories of resiliency factors. For example, leadership skills are fostered and bolstered by family support but need a community that allows positive involvement as a protective element that can sustain these skills. A community where there is a sense of caring, mutual protection, and non-drug use norms is likely to foster resiliency in each youth.

    Together with the protective factors in the family, community protective factors had been identified to be critical in the lives of street children in the study. Among these community factors, agency intervention or the help provided by the street children organization was the single factor consistently mentioned by all subjects as having positive effects in their lives. A certain bias towards this finding, however, is to be expected because all the respondents interviewed were accessed through various agencies that had identified them as being resilient According to the street children, the agencies acted as foster families from whom they could receive the warmth, care and support that their own families were unable to provide effectively and continuously. These agencies facilitated opportunities for schooling, involvement with peers, and basically functioned as surrogate families to which street children could turn in time of need. Not all children are resilient. In many cases, they may not even view the agency as a positive influence in their lives. However, all the 25 subjects in the study attributed the adaptive outcomes in their lives to the protective influence provided by the agencies.

    An opportunity for involvement with the community was mentioned in 15 of the 25 cases. These opportunities - like street theatre, working as junior health educators, teaching martial arts, participating in extracurricular activities - allowed positive personal growth and instilled feelings of adequacy and self-worth, as well as a sense of belonging to a community.

    School experience proved as a powerful element among the community and peer protective factors experienced by the subjects. Thirteen of the subjects mentioned the importance of having a caring and supportive school climate. Seven mentioned that high expectations from the school with regard to their performance goaded them to achieve. Both support and expectations generally came from a particular teacher or one’s peers in the school setting with whom bonds of friendship had been formed. These factors fostered in the street children feelings of self-efficacy, the belief that they themselves had some power over their circumstances and therefore could work toward attaining their dreams and aspirations. Being in school also lent a sense of purpose to these children, at the same time providing a structure and guidance in their lives. The effects of a supportive school climate can be seen in the example of Antonio.

    Antonio took more interest in subjects taught by teachers who were warm, concerned and supportive. He was nine years old and in fourth grade when one such teacher learned from his classmate that his father was an innocent stabbing-victim in a street brawl. She asked Antonio in class how his father was and he tearfully narrated what happened. Antonio was afraid that his father would die and he felt consoled by her concern and his classmates’ silent support. It inspired him to carry on with his studies and his work in the midst of the family crisis.

Cornelio G. Banaag,M.D.

Prevention Perspectives

November 2002, Vol. 3

Data-Base and Population Estimation of Street Children

     The literature survey indicates that there are differing estimates on the number of street children because estimates are made with no clear indication of the types of children being covered and counted. A clear identification of the segment of street children targeted was made prior to the start of the enumeration.

     Cognizant of the questions and issues raised about the label ‘street children,’ this study specifically focused on the ‘highly visible children on the streets,’ otherwise known as the ‘target priority group’ of street children needing utmost attention. Out of 246, 011 street children, 20 per cent are indicated to be ‘highly visible on the streets’, a group needing priority action. This segment of street children also comprises 1.61% of the urban young population aging 0-17 years. From the estimates made from the covered 22 cities, the national estimates for highly visible children on the streets in the country ranges from 45, 000 (downside) to 50,000 (high side).

    Majority of the children covered in the study were located in barangays/areas outside of their place of residence. About 25% are residing in cities outside or different from the city where they were located, implying the importance of a metropolitan approach in addressing the problem on street children.

    Children stake out in different locations, and the predominant ones were streets (36.5%), market (8%) and worship/recreation areas (12.4%). In terms of visibility on the streets, children stay on the streets for an average of nine (9) hours within a day. The range of hours is from 4 hours to 24 hours; about 8% stay on the streets for the whole day and the greatest numbers of them are in Metro Manila.

    Based on the previous studies, one could surmise that the number of children who actually stay and live on the streets have increased at present (from the reported 5% of the previous studies to 8% of the present research). Extent of visibility on the streets is significantly explained by age, gender, participation in schooling, living arrangement, frequency of going home, assistance extended by street educators/workers and child’s knowledge of existence of organizations/ agencies providing assistance.

    The study recommended a review, examination and rethinking of the strategies adopted by ‘street-based’ interventions and programs given the findings that individuals extending assistance increases visibility and the amount of time spent by children on the streets. Since it serves as a ‘pull’ factor, some kind of a rethinking and redirecting of efforts is necessary. This research must be followed by a conduct of an assessment of the centers given the findings that children leave the centers because of problems related to management of the center and the child-service provider interaction. Focus must be made on the quality of services provided to the children, the strengths and the growth edges or limitations of the centers, the benefits and the outcomes of the services provided to the children housed in the centers. A systematic and well-organized information system must be established to come up with solid data about children in general. This is necessary for monitoring and tracking purposes notwithstanding benchmarking and program designing. A well-coordinated information system will be necessary. One step to do this is to assign an agency, preferably an independent entity, to coordinate this information system. An added dimension to the network will be the regional offices of the Department of Social Welfare and Development with ties to the city or municipality level offices. Some kind of capacity building/upgrading, however, will be necessary notwithstanding the need to standardize the recording and the reporting system in these offices.

Exaltacion E. Lamberte

DLSU-Social Development Research Center